By the time 2,000 National Guard troops arrived, they found a community charred and devastated. As such, production in the local iron and steel industry soared, but pay for unskilled workers still reeling from a 9% wage cut the year before remained flat at the common rate of 19.5 cents an hour, Lawson said. The company promotes economic redevelopment in Youngstown, and has partnerships with local manufacturers. It was made in the 1890s by A. H. Ordway & Co. of South Framingham, Massachusetts. A crowd of strikers and their wives had gathered on Wilson Avenue by bridge at the north entrance to the plant to prevent scabs from entering. Either rocks were thrown or a shot was fired from the crowd toward the security forces protecting the entrance to the plant. The Ohio National Guard was called in to restore order, ending the strike. In just 15 years, East Youngstown grew from a population of zero to more than 5,000, causing incredible stress on housing, infrastructure and the simple amenities necessary to sustain the population, of which 80% were male and most of them foreign-born. Photo courtesy of the Mahoning Valley Historical Society. *The Intercept [4], As director of the American Iron and Steel Institute during World War I, Campbell was responsible for the allocation of steel tubular products. *Sunlight Foundation Tidwell persuaded Davis that the CHP was in the area, and Davis drove away. Coverage on the East Youngstown strike riot involving the Youngstown . [2][9] Opponents of the merger were backed financially by Cyrus S. Eaton, founder of Republic Steel, who feared the implications of a strengthened Bethlehem Steel. Soon after the shootout, the CHP standardized their ammunition on the .38-caliber round, ensuring all officers trained with the same ammunition they would use on duty. *Flowers for Socrates A third CHP patrol car arrived on scene, and the officers briefly exchanged gunfire with the perpetrators, who then fled. On the other side of the cruiser, Kness picked up Alleyn's discarded shotgun and tried to fire at Davis, but the gun was empty. Until Black Monday. Without any more loaded guns at his disposal, Davis surrendered. The Youngstown Daily Vindicator, as the paper was then called, painted a picture of utter chaos in a Jan. 8 article: Scenes never before known to this locality were enacted by the strikers of the Youngstown Sheet & Tube company Friday night and Saturday morning at East Youngstown when nearly 100 business blocks and residences were burned to the ground and damage estimated at $1,000,000 was done. Much of the reopened plant's production comprised tube rounds for the Campbell seamless tube mills. So this is not bad housing. By The claim was made that the real blame was just resting on the fence and had not really been placed. EAST YOUNGSTOWN Mahoning Co. OHIO Sheet & Tube Strike Steel RIOTS 1916 Newspaper (Note: additional images are located below the description) Offered is an original, historic, & collectible old newspaper: EVENING TRIBUNE, San Diego, Jan. 7, 1916 It was tight, congested. The Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company, based in Youngstown, Ohio, was an American steel manufacturer. A grand jury charged with hearing incidents involving the East Youngstown disturbance sought to determine who was responsible and what the main factors were behind the riot, said Thomas Leary, professor of applied history labor history at YSU. Blue, Frederick J.; Jenkins, William D.; Lawson, William H.; Reedy, Joan M. (1995). They wanted a raise to 25 cents per hour, they wanted time and a half for overtime, and they wanted double time for those who worked on Sundays, he said. Twinning and Davis met and became friends in prison. Symposium to Recall 1916 Strike in East Youngstown [9], Three miles away from the shootout scene, Twinning broke into the house of Glenn S. Hoag (19281994), and took him hostage. RIVERTOWN INN & SUITES DOWNTOWN DETROIT - Detroit MI 1316 East [10], Shortly after Gore was killed, Alleyn and Pence arrived on the scene. [18], In the aftermath of the Newhall shooting, although this was not based on the actions of any officer involved in the incident, the CHP modified their training to eliminate the practice of "pocketing brass" on the range (the act of picking up spent cartridge cases before reloading with fresh rounds). A fire started when rioters broke into company headquarters and began burning records, Lawson said. Strikes during my growing up years did not have the violence of these early confrontations. Campbell led the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company through a tumultuous period of labor strife that included the East Youngstown riot of 1916, a nationally reported incident that required the intervention of the National Guard. At the time, the CHP did not issue speedloaders to their officers; Pence had to reload one round at a time. -Jan 18, 1916 James Campbell, president of Sheet & Tube, told the New York Tribune that the real devils in this situation are the men sent here by the American Federation of Labor.. EAST YOUNGSTOWN Mahoning Co. OHIO Sheet & Tube Strike Steel RIOTS 1916 Growing Up in Working Class Youngstown 1916 Steel Strike and East Subscribers may view the full text of this article in its original form through TimesMachine. "[12] By roughly 9am, Twinning released his hostage from the house. The home plant of YS&T was known as the Campbell Works, located in Campbell and Struthers, Ohio. YOUNGSTOWN, Ohio On display inside Tyler History Center is a roster for Tod Post #29, G.A.R. It set up a company to buy land and develop it for housing, some of which remains standing in present-day Campbell. Despite the destruction, historians agree the strike and riot woke company executives up to quality-of-life issues for their workers. Had the guards been kept within the limits of the mill property I doubt if there would have been any trouble. *Evonomics Not for a long time will the last mementoes of this affair disappear, although they might well be dispensed with to the advantage of the city. [2] Those who praised Campbell's achievements included Eugene Grace, president of Bethlehem Steel Company. Workers broke into company headquarters, burning records, looking for blacklists of union organizers target for violence. [2] In 1900, Youngstown industrialist George D. Wick appointed Campbell as secretary of what became the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. As predicted, the grand jury indicted individuals it claimed committed violations such as arson, rioting and burglary, Leary noted. Then, a volley of shots rang from the guards rifles into the crowd. Growth of the industry had led to crowded housing, and these costs and the cost of living left most families earning less than it cost to live. This page was last edited on 1 July 2023, at 14:02. In 1916, Sheet and Tube workers at the East Youngstown plant rioted during a strike over working conditions, which resulted in most of the town's business district being burned to the ground. The neighborhood featured a community house, gymnasium, and school with a public square as the focal point.Through the Blackburn Plat and company housing, YS&T was able to provide for the intellectual, spiritual, social, and material needs of its workers, binding them closely to the company and creating a dependency that went beyond employment. *The Brad Blog The Indiana Harbor mill continues operating, owned by Cleveland-Cliffs. Studio 1. *r/WayOfTheAloha This page is not available in other languages. Organized Labor, Volume 17, Number 5, 29 January 1916 Facts About Youngstown [ARTICLE] Back. 1st report coverage on the East Youngstown strike riot involving the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. The Brier Hill Works closed in 1979 as part of a continued wave of steel mill closings that devastated the Youngstown economy. [8] In 1931, he attempted to merge the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company with Bethlehem Steel, a move that was bitterly, and successfully, opposed by other local industrialists. He later became associated with the Trumbull Iron Company. In 1902, Campbell rose to the position of vice president, and in 1904, he became president of the company. 1916 East Youngstown strike riots - RareNewspapers.com APN . The area at that time was home to a booming manufacturing industry, dominated by a few major corporations and fueled by wartime demand for steel products. The group established the Youngstown Iron Sheet and Tube Company with $600,000 in capital. After issuing a surrender ultimatum, police pumped tear gas into the house and stormed in. Despite the work of a graduate student who 10 years ago discovered a list of those who were arrested in connection with the riots, its still difficult to pin down just who these people were and where they worked, Leary continued. The Times reported Jan. 9 that, For the first time in the history of the city, saloons were closed in Youngstown on a Saturday, this action being taken by the city authorities in an effort to prevent further disorder. Between the two plants, an estimated 16,000 people were out of work during the strike. You were usually working 12 hours a day in the mills, sometimes six days a week, making very low wages and trying to get a foothold really just trying to feel youre getting paid what youre worth, Lawson said. [video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuM_YYA2rYA width:560 height:315], (Got a site you want listed: Contact Admin), Member Sites After expending all his shotgun rounds, Alleyn opened fire on Davis with his Smith & Wesson Model 19 .357 Magnum revolver, but did not make any hits. At about 11:54 p.m. on April 5, CHP officers Walt Frago and Roger Gore conducted a traffic stop of Bobby Davis and Jack Twinning in conjunction with an incident reported to the CHP minutes earlier. The workers had asked for a wage of 25 cents an hour, time and a half overtime, and double overtime for Sundays. The event attracted more than 100 to the Youngstown Historical Center for Industry and Labor, which the YSU history department manages for the Ohio Historical Society. (New Castle, Pennsylvania) View Full Article in Timesmachine , See the article in its original context from. On the afternoon of Jan. 7, 1916, more than 1,000 strikers and onlookers gathered along Wilson Avenue near the north entrance of East Youngstowns Sheet & Tube plant. *michelewin: Fine Art America These are the kinds of records-linkage issues that can open up our understanding of not just what we know of the narrative of the events, but of the participants as well, Leary said. None were wearing a bulletproof vest, which were not widely issued to police officers at the time. Hundreds of rioters were arrested and many drew prison sentences. *Center for Constitutional Rights ft. house located at 6716 US-219, Ellicottville, NY 14731. *r/Kossacks for Sanders His shots hit the Pontiac, and a fragment from one of the bullets lodged into Davis's chest but the shot did not incapacitate him. This is a very different story. We are helpless in trying to cope with the situation, according to The New York Times, which along with other national media, reported extensively on the strike and riot. The National Guard remained in town to keep the peace for several days. Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. In 1916, Sheet and Tube workers at the East Youngstown plant rioted during a strike over working conditions, which resulted in most of the town's business district being burned to the ground. Welcome to r/Youngstown! http://caucus99percent.com/tags/youngstown-steel-strike-1915-16 Last updated by Brianna Treleven (Ohio History Service Corps ) on June 17th 2019, 4:20:14 pm. On January 7, 1916, a steel strike against . He committed suicide around 9 a.m. as the deputies entered the house. Several witnesses, including officers who responded to aid the four officers, said no brass casings were found in Officer Pence's clothing. Many rioters ended up facing consequences, however, including one who was given a $300 fine, five who were sent to the Ohio State Reformatory in Mansfield, and one convicted of manslaughter who was sentenced to prison, Leary said. More than 500 witnesses were called to testify in more than 200 different cases, the majority of which he believes were related to the East Youngstown riot. Big companies today outsource food service, custodial work and security, whose employees arent represented by organized labor. That evening, Ohio Gov. Obeying the officer's orders, Davis exited the driver's seat and walked to the front of the vehicle, where Gore proceeded to search him. By using this site, you agree to our privacy policy and terms of use. https://www.newspapers.com/image/85762390/ James Anson Campbell (September 11, 1854 September 20, 1933) was an American business leader known for his role as chairman of Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company, one of the largest regional steel-production firms in the United States. There wasnt a lot of running water. On the evening of Friday January 7, 1916, private gunthugs of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube company at East Youngstown left company property and lined themselves up on a public bridge. . James Anson Campbell - Wikipedia Historical accounts depict a drunken mob looting, burning and shooting in acts fueled by pent-up frustrations about low wages and unsavory working and living conditions. The strike was quelled by the arrival of National Guard troops. [11], The Newhall incident showed the difficulty in reloading revolvers under fire without a speedloader. DIVERSITY, EQUITY AND INCLUSION STATEMENT, Coming Soon Albert St Grill Free Food sign up, Westside Tires Walters to be Honored as Woman of the Year, Nominations Sought for Gems of the Valley Awards, CityScape Seeks Nominations for 2023 Beautification Awards, Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Statement. [6][13][14], After the shootout, the circumstances of the event were heavily scrutinized. Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. Not all was sweetness and light. to shame him. You had dozens of saloons, and it was a hard life. Off-duty sheriff's deputies gather in the parking lot at Pitchess Detention Center following a "large fight" on Thursday, July 15, 2021. Artist William Gropper visited Youngstown during the strike and published sketches and an article inThe Nation. 08/21/2017 was "The Great American Eclipse", a brief note on the Vivek Ramaswamy Town Hall, Puerto Rico sacrificed on the Cross Of Neoliberalism, Rebutting Branko Marcetic with style and grace. The company built its operations on a stretch of farmland along the Mahoning River mere wooded hillside, waving grain fields and tangled river bottoms, according to an account written by historian Joseph G. Butler Jr. that hastily grew into a thriving industrial community. George Get was 23 years old, he was shot through the head and died on January 7th. [17], The three officers who fired their handguns were using .357 Magnum rounds, although they had trained and been certified only with .38 Special ammunition, which has less recoil. What led to this outbreak? The painting is part of the collection at the Butler. All of those issues that are about quality of life, Lawson said. He tried to drag Alleyn to safety, but was unable to move him. *Real Climate YOUNGSTOWN, Ohio An exhibit featuring the works of artist and Youngstown native Maple Turner III is currently on display inside the Mahoning Valley Historical Societys Tyler History Center through Sept. 1. Hours before, company leaders had announced a wage increase to 22 cents an hour, which went into effect after the riots. [2], His early employment included stints as a hardware salesman and furniture store manager. 1969 Youngstown Riot | This abandoned Wilson Avenue storefro | Flickr TROOPS QUELL RIOTS IN EAST YOUNGSTOWN; One Militia Regiment Held in Reserve on Report More Trouble Is Brewing. It was a main thoroughfare lined with banks, stores, restaurants, offices and bars, said H. William Lawson, executive director of the Mahoning Valley Historical Society. Whether the blacklist was discovered is unknown, but the crowd set fire to the employment office and then turned its rage on East Youngstowns business district. The strike and riot at Youngstown, says the West report, marked the beginning of a rebellion that was about to spread throughout the steel industry, and that was checked only by the prompt action of Elbert H. Gary . 142 East 16th Street #15B. Davis took Frago's revolver with him, while Twinning ran off with Pence's revolver and Frago's shotgun. This gesture, while intended to honor James Campbell, reflected the community's desire to distance itself from the infamous riot. Willis Sends Three Guard Regiments. Steel Seizure Case. This blog is strictly for non-commercial purposes. NEW YORK TRIBUNE, January 8, 1916 * East Youngstown OH Ohio riots * 1st report This 14 page newspaper has one column headlines on the front page that include: "RIOTERS BURN AND SACK OHIO TOWN, 3 DEAD", "Troops Rush to Quell Rioters at East Youngstown", "Dynamite Seized To Raze Houses" and more. Then guards fired into the crowds. *Hot Air News Roundup, Member Sites The driver was accompanied by a male passenger. 3 beds, 2.5 baths, 2048 sq. Jordyn Grzelewski On January 7, 1916, a steel strike against Youngstown Sheet and Tube descended into tragic violence. / 34.4233; -118.5850. This is our blog. [19], California Senate Concurrent Resolution 93, introduced by Senator George Runner, designated Interstate 5 between the Rye Canyon Road overpass and Magic Mountain Parkway in Santa Clarita as the "California Highway Patrol Officers James E. Pence, Jr., Roger D. Gore, Walter C. Frago, and George M. Alleyn Memorial Highway" and was passed on August 11, 2006. *Very Smart Brothas Check out the latest issue of The Business Journal. Take a step back in time as local historians and photos from the Museum of Industry and Labor bring the Steel Strike of 1916 to life. This led to the U.S. Supreme Court decision of Youngstown Sheet & Tube Company v. Sawyer, which limited presidential authority. [7] They returned to the construction site to procure the explosives. Your email address will not be published. A riot ensued, burning down half the business district of East Youngstown. All four officers had less than two years with the CHP. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Robert C Trube and Bob on Books with appropriate and specific direction to the original content. Your email address will not be published. During much of the Depression, the Brier Hill works was shut down, but it reopened in 1937. After exchanging gunfire with the owner, 40-year-old Daniel James Schwartz, armed with a World War II surplus Enfield revolver, Davis pistol-whipped Schwartz with his empty revolver and stole the camper. And no son of his will ever live They then opened fire upon a crowd of striking workers and their supporters as they marched towards the bridge. Dave McCall, director of District 1 of the United Steel Workers, said its imperative that the public learns from and understands these events in business and labor history. The strike, which began on December 27, 1915 was over wages. https://books.google.com/books/reader?id=9VJIAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove Robert Davis was wounded in the chest by a stray bullet while at work as a brakeman on the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. https://books.google.com/books/reader?id=9VJIAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove http://www.newspapers.com/image/87480887/, http://caucus99percent.com/tags/youngstown-steel-strike-1915-16, http://caucus99percent.com/tags/youngstown-massacre-1916, http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/folk-song-lyrics/Homestead_Strike.htm, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kuM_YYA2rYA, Welcome to Saturday's Potluck - Aug 19, 2023, Maybe one day you will tell us what you went through, The one Aussie I used to have a lot of contact with, There' a lot of that going around these days. [11], Pence was still trying to reload his revolver and failed to see Twinning's approach. People dont always know that.. *Salon Youngstown Sheet & Tube RIOT | 100 YEARS LATER | Vindy Archives William Gropper, Youngstown Strike 1937, Butler Institute of American Art. *John Pilger 3 KILLED, 19 SHOT, IN OHIO STRIKE RIOT, https://www.nytimes.com/1916/01/08/archives/3-killed-19-shot-town-set-afire-ohio-militia-out-east-youngstown.html. Will todays companies remember these lessons from the past? He recovered his health, however, and later excelled at sports such as baseball and boxing. Howdy! Putrid is a nasty sounding word, but it is the only word that just fits the condition. A bystander tried to help by firing an officer's weapon, but the three were outgunned. [7][10], Gary Dean Kness, 31, a former U.S. Marine and computer operator, was en route to work when he came upon the shootout. The Newhall incident, also called the Newhall massacre, was a shootout on April 56, 1970, in Valencia, California,[a] between two heavily armed criminals and four officers of the California Highway Patrol (CHP). Honoring George Floyd in California. 1616 Raystown Rd, Everett, PA 15537 | Zillow What started as a labor dispute devolved into a day of rioting. After the riots, East Youngstown was renamed Campbell in honor of the company's president. RAZED BRIDGE BALKS MOB Destroyed to Keep Attackers Away -- Gov. These homes are very modern.. The strike was quelled by the arrival of National Guard troops. *Abby Martin: Empire Files Reno Gazette-Journal from Reno, Nevada on January 8, 1916 Page 4 in Fulton after an extended illness. Both Alleyn and Pence suffered fatal injuries, while the witness ran out of ammunition and took cover in a ditch. Jan 8, 1916 *Democracy at Work (Richard Wolff), Climate/Green NEW YORK TRIBUNE, January 10, 1916 * East Youngstown, Ohio riots * 1st report This 14 page newspaper has one column headlines on the front page that include: "RIOTING HALTS STEEL MERGER", "Four Inquires Will Trace Cause of Ohio Trouble", "Twenty-one Mob Members Shot, but Bullets Spared Mill Police" and more (see photos). [7][8] En route to Los Angeles, they noticed construction along the highway near Gorman, and believed they could steal explosives there to commit a robbery. It was rough and tumble. Facts About Youngstown Organized Labor 29 January 1916 California *Jesse's Cafe Americain That year the country enjoyed a strong national manufacturing economy, buoyed by the United States assistance to Great Britain and France during World War I. A great source for books reviewed here. *Propublica Ultimately, Louis Campbell survived his father by less than two years. View sales history, tax history, home value estimates, and overhead views. *NewsBud Architectural drawing by Conzelman, Herding and Boyd (Source: Harvard Art Museums), The Blackburn Plat can be seen in the top right corner in this section of a c. 1919 map showing the various housing developments of the Buckeye Land Company in relation to the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company campus. Jan 9, 1916 The so-called "Little Steel" group, led by Republic's Tom Girdler, operated independently of United States Steel, which had previously signed a labor agreement with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and its subordinate Steel Workers Organizing Committee (SWOC). The event, sponsored by Youngstown Business and Professional Women, will be, YOUNGSTOWN, Ohio The Fund for Women & Girls Gems of the Valley is returning, and the community can now submit nominations for awards. 5365. Towntalk Guest; 1916 East Youngstown Riots Reply #1 on: January 21, 2011, 12:41:16 AM Jan. 7, 1916 . A single pellet from the shotgun struck Twinning in the forehead, but it caused only a minor superficial wound. 9 Letter Miller and Miss Harriett BRING OUT MILITIA Youngstown, O, Jan. "8. Its never stuff like giving them better pay. We are unquestionably in a different time. *libcom Newhall incident. [6], Jack Wright Twinning (September 11, 1935 April 6, 1970), age 34, and Bobby Augusta Davis (November 15, 1942 August 16, 2009), age 27, were both career criminals with long histories of violent felonies. O.H. Without realizing Frago had never fired the gun, Davis tried to cycle the action of the shotgun, but since it had not been fired, it was locked on a live round. The following list of worker deaths in United States labor disputes captures known incidents of fatal labor-related violence in U.S. labor history, which began in the colonial era with the earliest worker demands around 1636 for better working conditions. They devised a scheme to use explosives to rob the delivery car on a freeway offramp. Meanwhile, Alleyn emptied his Remington Model 870 shotgun at the Pontiac, firing the gun so fast he accidentally ejected a live round in the process. Lack of familiarity with their service shotguns was also cited as a problem during the shootout. $4,250. Once the strike was over, the company really began to engage in what historians call welfare capitalism. East Youngstown, which today is the city of Campbell, was home to steel manufacturer Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co.'s operations. On Jan. 7, 1916, thousands of people in the village of East Youngstown took to the streets. *Docudharma [11], At 3:25a.m., Davis stumbled onto a camper parked near a dirt road. Three of the patrolmen were found to have died from wounds that a standard ballistic vest might have prevented. [11] Funeral services were held at his sprawling mansion in [Liberty Township, Trumbull County, Ohio]. What they mean by that is the company started to engage in doing things for their employees. Charles Dayton Arms, Wicks brother in law and also an iron entrepreneur, was brought in as president. He was 24 years old. Take a step back in time as local historians and photos from the Museum of Industry and Labor bring the Steel Strike of 1916 to life. January 24, 2016 at 12:01a.m. January 13, 2018 January 12, 2018 / rtrube54 / Leave a comment. https://www.newspapers.com/image/73029326/, IMAGES *Climate Central Society of Architectural Historians profile, Rustbelt Anthro blog post about the YS&T Company housing, Iron Soup Historical Preservation Company, Engineering News-Record article (April 11, 1918), The American Architect article (October 2, 1918), Brianna Treleven (Ohio History Service Corps ). As he did, a third CHP cruiser, carrying Sergeant Harry Ingold and his partners, Officers Roger Palmer, Ed Holmes, and Richard Robinson, arrived at the scene. 1916 Youngstown Sheet & Tube Workers Riot real photo postcard | #1821443941 "They placed us on corners so the public could . The podcast A Morning Cup of Murder featured the Newhall Incident on its April 6, 2022 episode. https://www.nytimes.com/1916/01/09/archives/troops-quell-riots-in-east-youngstown-one-militia-regiment-held-in.html. Davis returned fire with his sawed-off shotgun, striking Alleyn with 10 rounds of 00 buckshot and inflicting fatal injuries. Twinning had been in and out of eight different federal prisons since age 16, including a five-year stint at Alcatraz, during which he killed another prisoner in self-defense. [7] The degenerative condition, which resulted in the amputation of Louis Campbell's right leg, forced the younger man to take frequent breaks from his position as treasurer of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company. $21.59,EAST YOUNGSTOWN Mahoning Co. OHIO Sheet & Tube Strike Steel RIOTS 1916 Newspaper(Note: additional images are located below the description)Offered is an original, historic, & collectibl . Jan 20, 1916 access to all of our articles every month. This page was last edited on 22 May 2023, at 00:30. I have, thus far, been able to find only the names of two of these workers. *WCPT Chicago's Progressive Talk, https://www.newspapers.com/image/85762390/, https://www.newspapers.com/image/85762403/, https://www.newspapers.com/image/87480908/, http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045487/1916-01-18/ed-2/seq-1/, https://www.newspapers.com/image/73029326/. Buildings. Political Local law enforcement wasnt equipped to handle the mob, and rioters hampered fire brigades efforts to douse the flames by cutting hoses. Built in response to the 1916 steel worker strike and riot that destroyed much of East Youngstown (now Campbell), the Blackburn Plat was a subdivision of Youngstown Sheet and Tube company housing for immigrant and African American steelworkers.

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