Importantly, similar processes may be relevant in other countries (for a cross-cultural perspective, see Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006), but because the social construction of race and ethnicity is bound to the sociohistorical context, and because each nation has a unique history for specific groups, specificity is important in this regard. No longer is ERI considered in isolation, but also how it intersects with gender identity, social class identity, national identity, career identity, and political identity, as examples (Bowleg, 2008; Syed, 2010). Yoo et al. conditions, use of Children who were internationally adopted by American families reflect another understudied population whose migration histories are quite distinct from children raised in biological families (Lee, 2003). Similar processes operate within mixed-ethnic and linguistic minority groups, who may experience exclusion from a group with which they identify because of having multiple ethnic heritages or not speaking a language that is often linked to the ethnic group (e.g., Spanish among Latinos; Way, Santos, Niwa, & Kim-Gervey, 2008). Strauss LC, & Cross WE Jr. (2005). a. earlier; 9 b. earlier; 11 c. later; 12 d. later; 14 . Buffering, code switching, and bridging underscored the management of intergroup relations, while other enactments revealed intergroup transactional competence. In addition to considering how ERI unfolds along a developmental timeline, attention to the social environmental context within which individuals lives are embedded is critical to understanding how ERI develops and the consequences of ERI for individuals adjustment. Identity Development Theory | Adolescent Psychology - Lumen Learning Socialization in the family: Ethnic and ecological perspectives In Damon W & Eisenberg N (Eds. 1: Identity Status. Called "identity statuses," Marcia defined four alternate ways that teenagers resolve identity issues. Group members not listed on the author byline are: Sabine French, George P. Knight, Carol Markstrom, and Robert M. Sellers. Identity achievement is said to happen around tweens and later teenage years. There also is some evidence to suggest that the association between public and private regard varies by ethnicracial group. The construct of exploration was central in Phinneys (1990) seminal work on ethnic identity, in which she extended Eriksons (1968) and Marcias (1994) theoretical work on personal identity to the domain of ethnic identity. Academic Achievement . d. I have thought it through. It is only possible to delineate the various out-groups once one has designated an in-group to which she or he belongs (Brewer, 1991). Teenagers experience rapid changes in body build, hormones, emotions, and cognitive abilities. As one example, most adolescents possess the social and cognitive capabilities to engage in identity exploration. ), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. Other psychologists have refined his work over time. Due to greater maturity and potentially broader perspectives based on more extensive life experiences, ERI during this period begins to involve greater exploration, deeper reflection, and increased flexibility (Azmitia et al., 2008). The quiz gives you a quick assessment of which identity status is closest to how you are right now. The Department of Homeland Security estimates approximately 11.5 million unauthorized or undocumented immigrants currently reside in the country (Hoefer, Rytina, & Baker, 2012). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children In Neisser U (Ed. Identity Formation | Lifespan Development - Lumen Learning Armenta BE, Lee RM, Pituc ST, Jung KR, Park IJ, Soto JA, & Schwartz SJ (2013). (2007) found that youths ethnic identity varied based on whether they were engaging with same-ethnicity or different-ethnicity peers. Without naming individuals, how well do the descriptions provided by James Marcia fit your experience or that of friends/acquaintances? Adding up your totals, you may have a mix of the four identity statuses, but it's likely you lean more toward one than another. Because race and ethnicity are social constructions and are contextually bound (Cokley, 2007), the degree of exposure to mainstream society is expected to play a large role in how ERI unfolds among individuals in more recent immigrant families. We focus more heavily on the developmental period of adolescence due to our focus on ethnic and racial identity rather than identification (distinction elaborated upon next). chapter 10 Flashcards | Quizlet Let's get back to the question of identity. developmental psych quiz 10 - Subjecto.com 15.2: James Marcia - Theory of Identity Development Among African American youth and young adults, there tends to be either a zero-order or small positive relation (Scottham, Sellers, & Nguyn, 2008), whereas public and private regard are more positively correlated for Asian Americans and Whites (Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, & Broadnax, 1994). Nearly 25 years ago, Phinney (1990) identified mixed-ethnic or biracial populations as a critical challenge to theory and research on ERInot because such youth are problematic, but rather because they require researchers and policy makers to question many of the fundamental assumptions about race and ethnicity. Phinney JS (1993). However, occupational identity achievement was more typical of women and foreclosure of men. We all have our own bottom lines tied to old emotional wounds. Furthermore, it is important to situate ethnicracial identities within the context of other identity domains. Another important component of ERI that has been studied extensively during the period of adolescence pertains to the positive affect that individuals feel toward their ethnicracial group (see Rivas-Drake et al., in press). How well the theory fits your own experiences or of other people Click the card to flip 4. ), Ethnic identity: A comparison of ingroup evaluations. Age of immigration also plays an important role in ERI development and acculturation processes in general (Rumbaut, 2004). This affect is referred to variously as affirmation (Umaa-Taylor et al., 2004), private regard (Sellers et al., 1998), and group esteem (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). ), The presentation of self in everyday life, Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice, Self, identity, and globalization in times of uncertainty: A dialogical analysis, Estimates of the unauthorized immigrant population residing in the United States: January 2011, Population Estimates, March 2012. Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity, The development of racial evaluation and preference: A cognitive approach. There are advantages to exploring your identity during your teenage years. Importantly, most racial identity and ethnic identity measures were not designed to be exclusively racial or ethnic, respectively (see Parham & Helms, 1981; the Racial Identity Attitude Scale as an exception). Learning Objectives Summarize the physical and cognitive changes that occur for boys and girls during adolescence. Indeed, recent work with Mexican-origin late adolescents and young adults (i.e., Umaa-Taylor et al., 2013) found that the degree to which youth elicit ethnic socialization messages from their families, which then inform their ethnic identity exploration and resolution, varies considerably based on the familys immigrant status. Way N, Santos C, Niwa EY, & Kim-Gervey C (2008). Identity 6. Adolescence is defined as the years between the onset of puberty and the beginning of adulthood. 8 or 9 A secondary sexual characteristic would involve which of the following? 1 According to Erikson, the major personality attainment of adolescence is __________. Such findings call for more studies stressing cultural participatory outcomes in addition to the collection of traditional outcomes (e.g., self-esteem). In understanding how youth develop an ERI, we are interested in sociohistorical demographic distinctions and the processes that result based on youths experiences as they relate to specific ethnic or racial groups. Although a small number of studies have begun to examine the interplay between process and content (e.g., Seaton et al., 2009), only a few studies have meaningfully distinguished between ERI process and content (Syed & Azmitia, 2008, 2010; Yip, in press; Yip et al., 2006). Marcia JE (1994). According to Phinney, ethnic identity is a process that takes place over time as individuals explore and make decisions concerning the meaningfulness of their ethnicity in their lives. Other social demands and transitions, including exposure to discrimination, different groups of people, and ethnic clubs, increase during adolescence and likely stimulate exploration (Phinney, 1990), contestation, negotiation, or reexamination (e.g., Cross, 1971, 1991) of ones ERI. College is often referred to as a consciousness-raising experience, as the diversity in peers, coursework, and social spheres often prompt individuals to think about their ERI in new ways (Azmitia, Syed, & Radmacher, 2008). The problem for them is that without an actual period of exploring their own commitments, they may find themselves in mid-life to regret those decisions that did not match their true, inner needs. For most, the search for identity begins in the adolescent years. b. I've never really seriously considered men's and women's roles. Temporal contexts can include situational, developmental, and historical influences. Sellers RM, Rowley SAJ, Chavous TM, Shelton JN, & Smith MA (1997). As noted by Garca Coll et al. The developmental psychologist Erik Erikson defined eight crisis stages that characterize our lives from birth through death. Shakespeare, Hamlet The question of what constitutes identity has been answered differently through different historical epochs and through different theoretical and empirical approaches to understanding identity's form and functions. Identity achievement occurs when the adolescent has explored and committed to fundamental aspects of their identity. Change in ethnic identity across the high school years among adolescents with Latin American, Asian, and European backgrounds. Few studies have been designed to capture changes over smaller time scales for extended periods of time (e.g., daily diary methods over an extended period of time; see Torres & Ong, 2010, for a daily diary study that spanned 13 days). Indeed, scholars have suggested that it is not until adolescence that individuals possess the abstract and counterfactual thinking skills necessary to consider identity issues (Marcia, 1994). Accessibility A final point is that there are events or experiences that are less universal, but critical forand should be considered in attempts to understandERI development. For example, an ERI member who embraces a strong, positive but assimilated frame of reference may possess a social identity that is limited in its capacity to engage culturalpolitical challenges faced by the group. Nishina A, Bellmore A, Witkow MR, & Nyland-Gibson K (2010). However, unlike the personal identity literature, where commitment is almost universally linked with positive psychosocial adjustment (Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, & Pollock, 2008), positive feelings about raceethnicity may not necessarily reflect better adjustment. support, Terms and ), APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology, A narrative approach to ethnic identity in emerging adulthood: Bringing life to the identity status model, Longitudinal trajectories of ethnic identity during the college years, Narrative and ethnic identity exploration: A longitudinal account of emerging adults ethnicity-related experiences, Birds of an ethnic feather? Thus, it is important to consider that the multiple components of ERI that become important during this developmental period must be studied in tandem, along with attention to features of the social context, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the processes at work and their links to adjustment. This foundational sense of self is referenced as the achieved identity to signify that it has been selected (commitment), explored (moratorium), and internalized (achieved). Thus, we propose the term ERI to capture experiences that reflect both individuals ethnic background and their racialized experiences as a member of a particular group in the context of the United States. ERI must, therefore, be understood within the context of the many experiences, relationships, and institutions that individuals encounter across the life span. For youth who develop low public regard during late adolescence and emerging adulthood, identity self-denial in which there is an attempt to hide or minimize ones ethnicracial background, including being afraid to express feelings about the in-group (Driedger, 1976), may emerge. The .gov means its official. A related but distinct form of affect relevant to ERI is public regard. Dynamics of Identity Development in Adolescence: A Decade in Review a. I'm not sure what religion means to me. In fact, the links between affirmation and adjustment may be dependent on salience, centrality, and the specific situational context. d. I've never really questioned my religion. Umaa-Taylor AJ, Wong JJ, Gonzales NA, & Dumka LE (2012). Although the content of ERI during adolescence involves some of the features from childhood (e.g., centrality, affect), it also evolves to include an understanding of a common fate or shared destiny based on ethnic or racial group membership, and that these shared experiences differ from the experiences of individuals from other groups (Syed & Azmitia, 2008). Notably, the school context can play a significant role in the ERI formation process and in the extent to which ERI is linked to adjustment, as evidenced by prior work focused on ERI and the ethnic composition of schools (e.g., Kiang, Witkow, Baldelomar, & Fuligni, 2010). Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson 's theory of psychosocial development, which occurs after the third stage of initiative versus guilt. Four identity statuses are built from high and low positions on two. People who are constantly seeking approval may find that they suppress their genuine thoughts and feelings. In addition, there are 1.9 million resident nonimmigrants (i.e., temporary workers and families, students and families) with an estimated 20% under 18 years of age (Baker, 2012). . Salience specifically refers to the extent to which ones ethnicity-race is relevant to ones self-concept in a particular situation; importantly, salience is determined by the interface of the context of the situation and the individuals tendency to define himself or herself in terms of ethnicity-race (Sellers et al., 1998). Neville H, Spanierman L, & Doan B (2006). Similarly, ERI does not merely reflect an endpoint of how one chooses to self-identify, what one believes, or how one feels about ones group, but also the process by which one arrives at such self-identification choices at any given moment or period of life. To be or not to be: An exploration of ethnic identity development in context In Azmitia M, Syed M, & Radmacher K (Eds. Nigrescence research shows that ERI members with an adult achieved identity characterized by an assimilationist frame evidence as much psychological integrity (e.g., self-esteem, ego strength, general personality strength) as other ethnicracial minority group members for whom race, ethnicity, and culture are more important (Cross, 1991; Worrell, 2012; Yip & Cross, 2004). Garca Coll CG, Crnic K, Lamberty G, Wasik BH, Jenkins R, Garca HV, & McAdoo HP (1996). We further suggest that ones ERI during adulthood becomes part of the persons psychological platform for negotiating employment and career choices, continuing formal education, community and political participation, cultural activities, and partner intimacy reticulated by commitment leading to family formation. We speculate that this association also may hold true for ERI development. This article provides an analysis of the interface of ERI with salient developmental and contextual issues from early childhood to young adulthood, with the goal of highlighting key milestones in the development of ERI over time (see Table 1). In Rumbauts (1994) seminal study on children of immigrants from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean in San Diego and Miami, he found that youth who lived in the United States for fewer than 10 years had distinct ethnic and racial identities compared to U.S.-born youth. For example, the internalization of the model minority myth is a particularly relevant expression of public regard for Asian American youth (Yoo, Burrola, & Steger, 2010). When identity status change occurs (in late adolescence and young adulthood) the change is more than twice as likely to be progressive as opposed to regressive. Reasons for immigration similarly must be taken into consideration when understanding ERI development. Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. The awareness and internalization of positive and negative stereotypes is a unique aspect of public regard that common ERI measures do not currently assess. Your identity can adapt to whatever developmental tasks come your way. c. I've spent some time thinking about men's and women's roles and I've decided what works best for me. These narratives are expected to continuously evolve, and the content and meaning making of these narratives will be largely informed by the features of the multiple contexts (e.g., family, work, community) in which individuals lives are embedded (McLean, Pasupathi, & Pals, 2007). Methodological issues in ethnic and racial identity research: Theoretical precision, measurement issues, and research designs. Contribution 8. cookies. There are various questionnaires that identity researchers use to measure identity statuses or the dimensions that produce them. Dimension two is "exploration." Pubertal changes may prompt individuals to be more self-conscious and may raise concerns regarding body image (Franko & Striegel-Moore, 2002). In one study of Latino early adolescents, for example, higher levels of affirmation were associated with decreases in academic adjustment from seventh to eighth grades (Umaa-Taylor, Wong, Gonzales, & Dumka, 2012). Public regard refers to the extent to which youth feel that others (individuals, groups, and the broader society) view their ethnic-racial group positively or negatively ( Sellers et al., 1998 ). People high on exploration but low on commitment are in a category that Marcia called "moratorium." Put differently, embracing ones culture, race, and ethnicity may not provide any particular psychological advantage over an assimilated identity. Furthermore, studies with ethnic minority youth have noted that close and warm relationships with parents are associated with more well-developed ERI components (e.g., Huang & Stormshak, 2011). There is now some evidence that ERI during adulthood entails a continuation of the processes that were salient during adolescence (Syed & Azmitia, 2009), and that ERI components similarly inform adjustment during adulthood (e.g., Bair & Steele, 2010). Knowing how to avoid people high in dark triad (DT) traits can be beneficial. Moreover, ethnic identity development is stimulated by processes that are typically considered racial in nature (Pahl & Way, 2006), and conversely, racial identity attitudes have been shown to be associated with embracing cultural traditions (Cokley, 2005). If you don't come to grips with these crucial life decisions and never arrive at a firm identity, your "identity diffusion" will not prepare you for the developmental tasks that lie ahead. It can be argued that most ERI research on children from immigrant backgrounds presumes a voluntary legal migration history, which is a problematic approach to understanding immigration. These identities refer to both (a) racialized experiences due to the ascription of categories such as Black, Asian, American Indian, and Hispanic or Latino and (b) the connection and experiences that individuals have based on their particular cultural or ethnic ancestry. I realize I can agree with some and not other aspects of what my family believes. The most favorable status for people to have in terms of adjustment is identity achieved. When triggered, we may cope by leaving. Accomplishment 5. government site. Many studies have identified familial ethnic socialization as a critical influence on ERI formation (e.g., Hughes et al., 2006; Umaa-Taylor, Gonzales-Backen, & Guimond, 2009). A related but distinct form of affect relevant to ERI is public regard. Parke RD, & Buriel R (1998). 1. My views are identical to those of my family. Identity Foreclosure in Adolescents - Verywell Family These models have been the focus of over 40 years of empirical research (see Worrell, 2012); however, here we limit the discussion to a few findings that shed light on points made earlier. An important direction for future research will be to understand how the process and content of ERI simultaneously unfold across the life span. In addition to considering social relationships as an important context for ERI development, it is important to consider that the specific actors and interactions present within any particular context are likely to engage or disengage certain dimensions of an individuals ERI. An official website of the United States government. ), Ethnic identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities, The transracial adoption paradox history, research, and counseling implications of cultural socialization, Americas changing color lines: Immigration, race/ethnicity, and multiracial identification, Unraveling the model minority stereotype: Listening to Asian American youth. Individuals reach many social and cognitive milestones during childhood and adolescence, and knowledge of these developmental periods helps to organize an understanding of how and when the different components of ERI begin to emerge. Interestingly, African American adolescents who reported low public regard demonstrated relatively weaker associations between perceived discrimination and psychological adjustment compared to their counterparts reporting high public regard, suggesting a buffering effect (Sellers, Copeland-Linder, Martin, & Lewis, 2006). It is also possible that this process of identity coherence will cause individuals to become increasingly rigid in their views of race and ethnicity, particularly given the social context within which they were raised and their educational and occupational experiences. Shopping cart An identity "crisis" may occur at any time in one's adult years when faced with a challenge to one's sense of self. Finally, ERI is an interaction between maturation and context, and thus takes different forms and has different meanings across the life span. Luyckx K, Schwartz S, Goossens L, & Pollock S (2008). In terms of ERI, these new cognitive capacities give adolescents the ability to explore what ERI means to them with respect to their ethnic or racial reference group, apart from what it means to their parents. However, there have been few efforts to bring scholars together to discuss the theoretical complexities of each of these constructs, provide a synthesis of the existing theoretical work, and provide specific recommendations for how the field might move forward with respect to the conceptualization of these constructs (for an exception, see Ponterotto & Mallinckrodt, 2007). Identity Development Figure 1. Hurd NM, Snchez B, Zimmerman MA, & Caldwell CH (2012). The development and interface of process and content features of ERI occur on a daily basis (Yip, in press); thus, limiting assessments of these constructs to annual or semiannual observations significantly hinders an understanding of how process and content of ERI unfold across the life span. Identity Formation in Adulthood: A Longitudinal Study from Age 27 to 50 In particular, the support versus stress presented by given social-contextual forces likely determines the ways in which the various ERI processes unfold. Phinney JS, Horenczyk G, Liebkind K, & Vedder P (2001). Specifically, the need for deindividuation is satisfied by identifying with a specific set of social groups, whereas the need for distinctiveness is satisfied by the ability to make out-group comparisons (i.e., differentiating oneself and other in-group members from members of out-groups). For youth attending schools that are predominantly White, ethnicity may be particularly salient (because of ones status as a numerical minority). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation, Pubertal timing and identity crisis: A preliminary investigation, When Black + Woman + Lesbian? Similarly, Yip, Seaton, and Sellers (2006) found that individuals classified as achieved status (i.e., high exploration, high commitment) in their ERI tended to report the highest levels of centrality. The site is secure. Indeed, research has shown that in such situations, adolescents make distinctions based on other social categories (e.g., immigration status, socioeconomic status, language ability; Lee, 2009). Increased functional autonomy and movement toward independence (e.g., being legally of age to obtain a drivers license and to be employed) is an additional social-developmental change during adolescence that is pertinent to ERI development (Lerner, Freund, DeStefanis, & Habermas, 2001). Turning to another developmental period of interest stressed in a traditional perspective on identity and self-concept, a life-span approach to ERI must include attention to how this process continues to unfold through young adulthood and into adulthood proper. Exploring the association between color-blind racial ideology and multicultural counseling competencies. Thus, there may be different paths based on the broader ecological contexts and life experiences of individuals. c. I've gone through a period of serious questions about faith and can now say I understand what I believe in as an individual. Indeed, research on colorblind perspectives held by ethnicracial minority group members (Neville et al., 2006) and Perkinss (2010) work on false consciousness both point to ethnicracial minority group members who are at risk for identity change. Having a strong identity in adolescence, the thinking goes, rests in part on your having a strong sense of trust in infancy, autonomy in toddlerhood, ability to play as a preschooler, and solid work ethic in the elementary school years. In the course of a 14-day daily diary study (Strauss & Cross, 2005), Black participants enacted identity protection (buffering) when faced with insulting and discriminatory events and experiences, identity shifting (code-switching) when participants found themselves moving in and out of contexts scripted by mainstream norms and expectations, and identity intimacy and friendship (bridging) reflected the negotiation of friendships and bonding across racial (i.e., ERI) boundaries. Thus, ERI does not exclusively refer to the self-categorization or ethnicracial identification label that an individual chooses (e.g., Latino, Puerto Rican, African American, Chinese), although we do agree that the process of ERI can lead to different choices in self-categorization (e.g., Nishina, Bellmore, Witkow, & Nyland-Gibson, 2010). . Assessment of ethnic identity and acculturation In Geisinger K (Ed.

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